diff --git a/content/CSE4303/CSE4303_L11.md b/content/CSE4303/CSE4303_L11.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..99ae9fd --- /dev/null +++ b/content/CSE4303/CSE4303_L11.md @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +# CSE4303 Introduction to Computer Security (Lecture 11) diff --git a/content/CSE4303/_meta.js b/content/CSE4303/_meta.js index f83001a..55d7bd9 100644 --- a/content/CSE4303/_meta.js +++ b/content/CSE4303/_meta.js @@ -12,4 +12,7 @@ export default { CSE4303_L7: "Introduction to Computer Security (Lecture 7)", CSE4303_L8: "Introduction to Computer Security (Lecture 8)", CSE4303_L9: "Introduction to Computer Security (Lecture 9)", + CSE4303_L9: "Introduction to Computer Security (Lecture 9)", + CSE4303_L10: "Introduction to Computer Security (Lecture 10)", + CSE4303_L11: "Introduction to Computer Security (Lecture 11)", } diff --git a/content/Math4302/Math4302_L17.md b/content/Math4302/Math4302_L17.md index dd348b8..eb1d8e7 100644 --- a/content/Math4302/Math4302_L17.md +++ b/content/Math4302/Math4302_L17.md @@ -1,3 +1,108 @@ # Math4302 Modern Algebra (Lecture 17) -## Subgroup \ No newline at end of file +## Subgroup + +### Normal subgroup + +#### Fundamental theorem of homomorphism + +If $\phi: G\to G'$ is a homomorphism, then the map $f:G/\ker(\phi)\to\phi(G)$ given by $f(a\ker(\phi))= \phi(a)$ is well defined and is an isomorphism. + +$\ker(\phi)\trianglelefteq G$, and $\phi(G)=\{\phi(a)|a\in G\}\leq G'$ + +
+Proof + +First we will prove the well definedness and injectivity of $f$. + +We need to check the map will not map the same coset represented in different ways to different elements. + +Suppose $a\ker(\phi)=a'\ker(\phi)$, then $a^{-1}b\in \ker(\phi)$, this implies $\phi(a^{-1}b)=e'$ so $\phi(a)=\phi(b)$. + +Reverse the direction to prove the converse. + +The injective property is trivial. + +Next, we will show that $f$ is a homomorphism. + +$$ +\begin{aligned} + f(a\ker \phi b\ker \phi)&=f(ab\ker \phi)\\ + &=\phi(ab)\\ + &=\phi(a)\phi(b)\text{ since $\phi$ is homomorphism}\\ + &=f(a\ker \phi)f(b\ker \phi)\\ +\end{aligned} +$$ + +We also need to show $f$ is surjective: + +If $\phi(a)\in \phi(G)$, then $f(a\ker \phi)=\phi(a)$ + +
+ +
+ Examples for application of theorem + +If $\phi$ is injective, then $\ker \phi=\{e\}$, so $G\simeq \phi(G)\leq G'$ + +--- + +If $\phi$ is surjective, then $\phi(G)=G'$, so $G/\ker\phi \simeq G'$ + +--- + +Let $\phi:G\to G'$ be any homomorphism between two groups. + +Then there exists a surjective map that $G\to G/\ker(\phi)$ by $a\mapsto aN$. + +And there exists a injective map that $G/\ker(\phi)\to G'$ by $a\ker(\phi)\mapsto \phi(a)$ + +
+ +> [!TIP] +> +> In general, if $N\trianglelefteq G$, then we have a homomorphism $\phi:G\to G/N$ where $a\mapsto aN$. $\ker(\phi)=N$ + +If $\phi:G\to G'$ is a non-trivial homomorphism, and $|G|=18$ and $|G'|=15$, then what is $|\ker\phi|$? + +
+Solution +Note that $G/\ker(\phi)\simeq \phi(G)$ since $|G'|=15$, then $|G/\ker(\phi)|=1,3,5$ or $15$. But $|G/\ker(\phi)|=\frac{|G|}{|G/\ker(\phi)|}=\frac{18}{1,3,5,15}$ so $|G/\ker(\phi)|=1$ or $3$. + +Since $\phi$ is not trivial, $G\neq \ker(\phi)$, so $|G/\ker(\phi)|=3$ + +So $|\ker(\phi)|=6$. + +Example: $\mathbb{Z}_{18}\to \mathbb{Z}_3\times \mathbb{Z}_5$ by $[a]\mapsto ([a\mod 3],[0])$. $\ker(\phi)=\{0,3,6,9,12,15\}$ + +
+ +What is $\mathbb{Z}_{12}/\langle 4\rangle$? \langle 4\rangle=\{0,4,8,\}$ + +
+Solution +The quotient of every cyclic group is also cyclic. + +Let $G=\langle a\rangle $ and $N\trianglelefteq G$, then $G/N=\langle aN\rangle$ if $bN\in G/N$, then $b=a^k$ for some $k$. So $bN=a^k N=(aN)^k$ + +So $\mathbb{Z}_{12}/\langle 4\rangle$ is a cyclic group of order $4$, so it is isomorphic to $\mathbb{Z}_4$. +
+ +What is $\mathbb{Z}\times \mathbb{Z}/\langle (1,1)\rangle$? Let $N=\langle (1,1)\rangle$. + +
+Solution + +This is isomorphic to $\mathbb{Z}$, sending the addition over one axis $\mathbb{Z}$. Show the kernel is $N$ + +
+ +#### There is only two group of order 4 + +Every group of order $4$ is isomorphic to either $\mathbb{Z}_4$ or $(\mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2,+)$ + +If $|G|=4$ and there is an element of order $4$ in $G$. then $G$ is cyclic, so $G\simeq \mathbb{Z}_4$. + +Otherwise since $|\langle a\rangle|||G|=4$ every $a\neq G$. Let $G=\{e,a,b,c\}$, Then $a^2=b^2=c^2=e$, and $ab=c (ab\neq e,ab\neq a,ab\neq b)$, so $G$ is isomorphic to $(\mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2,+)$ + +So we can use this property to define $G\to \mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2$ by $\phi(e)=(0,0), \phi(a)=(0,1), \phi(b)=(1,0), \phi(c)=(1,1)$ order of $a,b,c$ does not matter.