diff --git a/content/Math4202/Math4202_L22.md b/content/Math4202/Math4202_L22.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9c5a185 --- /dev/null +++ b/content/Math4202/Math4202_L22.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +# Math4202 Topology II (Lecture 22) + +## Final reading, report, presentation + +- Mar 30: Reading topic send email or discuss in OH. +- Apr 3: Finalize the plan. +- Apr 22,24: Last two lectures: 10 minutes to present. +- Final: type a short report, 2-5 pages. + +## Algebraic topology + +### Fundamental theorem of Algebra + +For arbitrary polynomial $f(z)=\sum_{i=0}^n a_i x^i$. Are there roots in $\mathbb{C}$? + +Consider $f(z)=a_nx^n+a_{n-1}x^{n-1}+a_{n-2}x^{n-2}+\cdots+a_0$ is a continuous map from $\mathbb{C}\to\mathbb{C}$. + +If $f(z_0)=0$, then $z_0$ is a root. + +By contradiction, Then $f:\mathbb{C}\to\mathbb{C}-\{0\}\cong \mathbb{R}^2-\{(0,0)\}$. + +#### Theorem for existence of n roots + +A polynomial equation $x^n+a_{n-1}x^{n-1}+a_{n-2}x^{n-2}+\cdots+a_0=0$ of degree $>0$ with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. + +There are $n$ roots by induction. + +#### Lemma + +If $g:S^1\to \mathbb{R}^2-\{(0,0)\}$ is the map $g(z)=z^n$, then $g$ is not nulhomotopic. $n\neq 0$, $n\in \mathbb{Z}$. + +> Recall that we proved that $g(z)=z$ is not nulhomotopic. + +Consider $k:S^1\to S^1$ by $k(z)=z^n$. $k$ is continuous, $k_*:\pi_1(S^1,1)\to \pi_1(S^1,1)$. + +Where $\pi_1(S^1,1)\cong \mathbb{Z}$. + +$k_*(n)=nk_*(1)$. + +Recall that the path in the loop $p:I\to S^1$ where $p:t\mapsto e^{2\pi it}$. + +$k_*(p)=[k(p(t))]$, where $n=\tilde{k\circ p}(1)$. + +$k_*$ is injective. + diff --git a/content/Math4202/_meta.js b/content/Math4202/_meta.js index 27cf5ba..c32309c 100644 --- a/content/Math4202/_meta.js +++ b/content/Math4202/_meta.js @@ -25,4 +25,5 @@ export default { Math4202_L19: "Topology II (Lecture 19)", Math4202_L20: "Topology II (Lecture 20)", Math4202_L21: "Topology II (Lecture 21)", + Math4202_L22: "Topology II (Lecture 22)", } diff --git a/content/Math4302/Math4302_L23.md b/content/Math4302/Math4302_L23.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..36b1fe2 --- /dev/null +++ b/content/Math4302/Math4302_L23.md @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ +# Math4302 Modern Algebra (Lecture 23) + +## Group + +### Group acting on a set + +#### Theorem for the orbit of a set with prime power group + +Suppose $X$ is a $G$-set, and $|G|=p^n$ where $p$ is prime, then $|X_G|\equiv |X|\mod p$. + +Where $X_G=\{x\in X|g\cdot x=x\text{ for all }g\in G\}=\{x\in X|\text{orbit of }x\text{ is trivial}\}$ + +#### Corollary: Cauchy's theorem + +If $p$, where $p$ is a prime, divides $|G|$, then $G$ has a subgroup of order $p$. (equivalently, $g$ has an element of order $p$) + +> This does not hold when $p$ is not prime. +> +> Consider $A_4$ with order $12$, and $A_4$ has no subgroup of order $6$. + +#### Corollary: Center of prime power group is non-trivial + +If $|G|=p^m$, then $Z(G)$ is non-trivial. ($Z(G)\neq \{e\}$) + +
+Proof + +Let $G$ act on $G$ via conjugation, then $g\cdot h=ghg^{-1}$. This makes $G$ to a $G$-set. + +Apply the theorem, the set of elements with trivial orbit is; Let $X=G$, then $X_G=\{h\in G|g\cdot h=h\text{ for all }g\in G\}=\{h\in G|ghg^{-1}=h\text{ for all }g\in G\}=Z(G)$. + +Therefore $|Z(G)|\equiv |G|\mod p$. + +So $p$ divides $|Z(G)|$, so $|Z(G)|\neq 1$, therefore $Z(G)$ is non-trivial. +
+ +#### Proposition: Prime square group is abelian + +If $|G|=p^2$, where $p$ is a prime, then $G$ is abelian. + +
+Proof + +Since $Z(G)$ is a subgroup of $G$, $|Z(G)|$ divides $p^2$ so $|Z(G)|=1, p$ or $p^2$. + +By corollary center of prime power group is non-trivial, $Z(G)\neq 1$. + +If $|Z(G)|=p$. If $|Z(G)|=p$, then consider the group $G/Z(G)$ (Note that $Z(G)\trianglelefteq G$). We have $|G/Z(G)|=p$ so $G/Z(G)$ is cyclic (by problem 13.39), therefore $G$ is abelian. + +If $|Z(G)|=p^2$, then $G$ is abelian. + +
+ +### Classification of small order + +Let $G$ be a group + +- $|G|=1$ + - $G=\{e\}$ +- $|G|=2$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_2$ (prime order) +- $|G|=3$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_3$ (prime order) +- $|G|=4$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_4$ +- $|G|=5$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_5$ (prime order) +- $|G|=6$ + - $G\simeq S_3$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_3\times \mathbb{Z}_2\simeq \mathbb{Z}_6$ +
+Proof + +$|G|$ has an element of order $2$, namely $b$, and an element of order $3$, namely $a$. + +So $e,a,a^2,b,ba,ba^2$ are distinct. + +Therefore, there are only two possibilities for value of $ab$. ($a,a^2$ are inverse of each other, $b$ is inverse of itself.) + +If $ab=ba$, then $G$ is abelian, then $G\simeq \mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_3$. + +If $ab=ba^2$, then $G\simeq S_3$. +
+ +- $|G|=7$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_7$ (prime order) +- $|G|=8$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_4\times \mathbb{Z}_2$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_8$ + - $G\simeq D_4$ + - $G\simeq$ quaternion group $\{e,i,j,k,-1,-i,-j,-k\}$ where $i^2=j^2=k^2=-1$, $(-1)^2=1$. $ij=l$, $jk=i$, $ki=j$, $ji=-k$, $kj=-i$, $ik=-j$. +- $|G|=9$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_3\times \mathbb{Z}_3$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_9$ (apply the corollary, $9=3^2$, these are all the possible cases) +- $|G|=10$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_5\times \mathbb{Z}_2\simeq \mathbb{Z}_{10}$ + - $G\simeq D_5$ +- $|G|=11$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_11$ (prime order) +- $|G|=12$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_3\times \mathbb{Z}_4$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_3$ + - $A_4$ + - $D_6\simeq S_3\times \mathbb{Z}_2$ + - ??? One more +- $|G|=13$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_{13}$ (prime order) +- $|G|=14$ + - $G\simeq\mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_7$ + - $G\simeq D_7$ + +#### Lemma for group of order $2p$ where $p$ is prime + +If $p$ is prime, $p\neq 2$, and $|G|=2p$, then $G$ is either abelian $\simeq \mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_p$ or $G\simeq D_p$ + +
+Proof + +We know $G$ has an element of order 2, namely $b$, and an element of order $p$, namely $a$. + +So $e,a,a^2,\dots ,a^{p-1},ba,ba^2,\dots,ba^{p-1}$ are distinct elements of $G$. + +Consider $ab$, if $ab=ba$, then $G$ is abelian, then $G\simeq \mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_p$. + +If $ab=ba^{p-1}$, then $G\simeq D_p$. + +$ab$ cannot be inverse of other elements, if $ab=ba^t$, where $2\leq t\leq p-2$, then $bab=a^t$, then $(bab)^t=a^{t^2}$, then $ba^tb=a^{t^2}$, therefore $a=a^{t^2}$, then $a^{t^2-1}=e$, so $p|(t^2-1)$, therefore $p|t-1$ or $p|t+1$. + +This is not possible since $2\leq t\leq p-2$. + +
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/content/Math4302/_meta.js b/content/Math4302/_meta.js index e4259d6..740b2f9 100644 --- a/content/Math4302/_meta.js +++ b/content/Math4302/_meta.js @@ -24,4 +24,6 @@ export default { Math4302_L19: "Modern Algebra (Lecture 19)", Math4302_L20: "Modern Algebra (Lecture 20)", Math4302_L21: "Modern Algebra (Lecture 21)", + Math4302_L22: "Modern Algebra (Lecture 22)", + Math4302_L23: "Modern Algebra (Lecture 23)", }